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Vernonia amygdalina
Also known as: bitter leaf, Vernonia amygdalina Delile
synthesized from dimensions*Vernonia amygdalina*, widely known as "bitter leaf," is a perennial shrub belonging to the Asteraceae family perennial shrub belonging. Indigenous to tropical Africa, it is cultivated across diverse regions in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and parts of South America, thriving in environments with high annual rainfall and elevations up to 2,800 meters [39]. The plant is physically characterized by a rough, flaky bark [32], medium-to-dark green leaves, and small, creamy white, thistle-like flower heads that grow in dense, aromatic clusters [3aed367e-a05a-4797-9188-a956350afd81]. It is widely regarded as the most frequently utilized medicinal herb within the *Vernonia* genus [41].
The plant holds significant nutritional and economic importance, serving as a vital food source that contributes to food security [26]. Its leaves are rich in proteins, essential amino acids, fiber, and minerals such as calcium, potassium, and iron [56, 57], as well as vitamins A, C, and E [60]. Due to its characteristic bitter taste—derived from secondary metabolites like saponins, tannins, and alkaloids [43]—it is a staple ingredient in various culinary traditions, such as the preparation of "Onugbo" soup in Nigeria and as a bittering agent in traditional fermented beverages like Ethiopian "Tej" and "tella" [52, 55].
In traditional medicine, *Vernonia amygdalina* is utilized globally [8b3d8f4e-0b22-4a3d-9cba-274077ff2b4b] to treat a vast array of human and animal ailments. Leaves, roots, and stems are prepared via decoction, grinding, or topical application to address conditions including malaria, gastro-intestinal disorders, diabetes, jaundice, and parasitic infestations [427b7b23-318f-4212-845f-2d06f260202f]. In ethnoveterinary practice, it is commonly used to treat intestinal parasites and leeches in livestock [5a58ed9c-c023-4570-bcad-0542eea1de87]. Practitioners often combine the plant with other substances, such as butter or coffee, to enhance its therapeutic efficacy [19098735-28b8-4887-84d7-d48205ec5da4].
Scientific research has extensively characterized the plant’s phytochemical profile, identifying bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and sesquiterpene lactones, including vernolide, vernodalol, and vernodalinol [aa0877b5-4853-4eeb-b052-c58ef991105c, ab412a07-6bd1-4ee2-980e-eda3d620cab8, 8747ccd1-3811-44a7-b2c8-de4a42451a67]. These molecules are linked to documented antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities [9aed01ac-0b61-4a58-bd00-bd3c20ef9298]. Studies have specifically noted its antimicrobial efficacy against pathogens like *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* [cf1ce0b9-0c9f-4939-b9e8-539214d8000f].
The nutritional and chemical composition of the plant is dynamic, influenced by geography, soil type, and environmental conditions [48611807-b15f-4c02-a6a9-4366c11734ec]. Processing methods—such as boiling, squeeze washing, and drying—are essential for reducing bitterness and anti-nutritional factors like phytates [26a97d0b-965e-449d-a90d-7dbea042b2d7]. However, these methods often result in a trade-off, as they can lead to the loss of essential water-soluble vitamins and proteins [fcf65a2f-5ff7-47d5-bd0f-d7f2693f3e8c]. Furthermore, some studies have raised concerns regarding the potential for heavy metal accumulation, such as lead and nickel, in certain samples [729bdc4e-9862-4698-b321-3ea94eed9641].
Despite the extensive body of literature, researchers emphasize that there is a continued need for standardized clinical trials and more rigorous in vivo pharmacological evaluations to clarify specific mechanisms of action [816afa89-adc7-4b35-8299-7e0470f365e2]. Future research is encouraged to focus on the standardization of formulations and the systematic validation of traditional claims to ensure safety and efficacy in modern therapeutic applications [7b96171e-16e4-4f50-bcf6-f3a2c3bc7e8d].
Model Perspectives (6)
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*Vernonia amygdalina*, commonly known as "bitter leaf," is a perennial shrub in the Asteraceae family perennial shrub belonging that is utilized globally in traditional medicine used globally as. The plant is rich in nutrients and phytochemicals rich in vital, including flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds phytochemicals including flavonoids, which are linked to biological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer effects bioactive molecules with potential.
Traditional therapeutic applications involve various parts of the plant, including leaves, roots, and stems, often prepared as oral decoctions or topical dressings traditionally used for. For example, leaves are crushed or blended to treat stomach disorders stomach disorders leaves, worm infestations treatment of tapeworm, and snake bites treatment of snake, while roots are used for issues like tonsillitis treat tonsillitis by and retained placenta in animals treatment of retained. Practitioners often combine these plant parts with other substances to create synergistic effects synergistic effects of, such as mixing leaves with butter, coffee, or other plant species leaves are combined.
Scientific research has identified numerous specific compounds across the plant's anatomy, such as vernolide and vernodalol in the leaves vernolide and vernodalol, and various caffeoylquinic acids leaves contain 5-O-caffeoylquinic. Despite this, there is a noted lack of extensive pharmacological evaluation using in vitro and in vivo techniques limited research has. Consequently, future research is encouraged to focus on clinical trials, standardization of formulations, and clarifying specific mechanisms of action future research on.
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Vernonia amygdalina, commonly known as 'bitter leaf' [42], is an indigenous plant of tropical Africa [38] that is widely utilized across sub-Saharan Africa [25] and parts of Asia [36]. It is generally considered the most frequently used medicinal herb within the *Vernonia* genus [41]. The plant thrives in diverse environments, growing in areas with high annual rainfall [39] and at elevations up to 2,800 meters [39], preferring direct sunlight and humus-rich soils [40]. Physically, it can grow to approximately 23 feet [31] and is characterized by a rough, flaky bark [32] and distinct, medium-to-dark green leaves [33].
Nutritionally, the leaves serve as a significant food source [45] and contribute to food security [26] due to their rich composition of proteins, essential amino acids, fiber, and minerals such as calcium, potassium, and iron [56, 57]. The plant also contains various vitamins including A, C, and E [60]. Its characteristic bitter taste, which is caused by secondary metabolites like saponins, tannins, and alkaloids [43], makes it a popular dietary component; for instance, it is used to prepare 'Onugbo' soup in Nigeria [52] and as a bittering agent in Ethiopian 'Tej' and 'tella' beer [55].
In traditional medicine, *Vernonia amygdalina* has been used for generations [46] to treat a wide spectrum of conditions ranging from diabetes and diarrhea to malaria and snake bites [27]. Modern scientific investigations have isolated numerous bioactive compounds, such as sesquiterpene lactones [8], luteolin, and vernodalol [29]. These compounds have demonstrated pharmacological potential, including antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties [30]. Research into these benefits is extensive, with studies utilizing techniques such as Soxhlet and microwave-assisted extraction [18] to characterize the plant's phytochemical profile [28]. The plant's versatility extends to agriculture, where it is used as animal fodder [53] and to enhance growth rates in poultry [54].
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*Vernonia amygdalina*, commonly known as bitter leaf, is a plant characterized by significant nutritional diversity and widespread use in traditional medicine. Its nutritional profile, including moisture, protein, ash, and mineral content, varies depending on factors such as soil type, environmental conditions, and geography nutritional composition varies. Quantitative analyses of leaf extracts have identified substantial portions of carbohydrates (37%) and proteins (28.2%) proximate evaluation extract, while other studies have cataloged specific mineral and vitamin concentrations, such as potassium, magnesium, and various B vitamins Okolie mineral quantification. However, some preparations may contain heavy metals like lead and nickel at levels exceeding World Health Organization recommendations Ssempijja heavy metals.
Processing methods significantly alter the plant's nutritional and anti-nutritional makeup. Traditional techniques such as boiling, squeeze washing, and salt abrasion are often used to reduce bitter flavors and anti-nutritional factors like tannins and phytates blanching and abrasion; however, these processes frequently result in the loss of essential nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins, minerals, and proteins nutrient loss from processing. Drying the leaves can concentrate certain elements like ash and fiber drying increases concentration, and proper storage—specifically at 4°C—is recommended to preserve therapeutic characteristics storage at 4C.
Ethnobotanically, the leaves are the most utilized part of the plant leaf most utilized, followed by roots, stems, and seeds, for treating a vast array of conditions including malaria, bloating, athlete's foot, and gastro-intestinal disorders traditional medicinal uses. Preparation methods are highly specific to the ailment, involving techniques such as grinding, soaking, crushing, boiling, and fumigation abdominal pain preparation.
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Vernonia amygdalina, commonly known as bitter leaf, is a green vegetable widely utilized for both ethnomedical and ethnoveterinary purposes vernonia amygdalina is green. Its medicinal applications are extensive, with traditional preparations often involving the oral consumption of leaves, roots, or extracted juices to treat conditions such as intestinal parasites, malaria, gastritis, abdominal pain, jaundice, and menstrual pain to treat intestinal parasites, to treat intestinal parasites, to treat malaria, to treat jaundice. In veterinary contexts, researchers have documented its use for treating leeches in cattle and other intestinal issues in animals for the treatment of leeches, to treat intestinal parasites.
Scientific interest in the plant is high, with numerous studies investigating its phytochemical composition, antioxidant properties, and antimicrobial effects against pathogens like *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* phytochemical analysis and in vitro, antibacterial analysis on aqueous. Researchers have isolated specific bioactive compounds, such as the sesquiterpene lactone vernodalinol and various steroid saponins isolated and determined the structure, isolated four new steroid. Furthermore, studies have explored the impact of processing methods—such as de-bittering and drying—on the plant's nutritional and anti-nutrient profile investigated the effects of, studied the effect of. The plant's potential pharmacological applications remain a subject of active research, covering areas ranging from anti-inflammatory activity to potential roles in HIV/AIDS management studied the anti-inflammatory activity, compared the immunological effects.
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*Vernonia amygdalina*, commonly known as the "vernonia tree" or "bitter leaf," is a medicinal plant known by various regional names, including 'ebicha' in Oromifa and 'grawa' in Amharic common local names. Geographically, the plant is widely cultivated across diverse regions, including Yemen, Brazil, South Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania wide geographic distribution. Botanically, the plant is characterized by small, 10 mm-long, creamy white, thistle-like flower heads flower head morphology that grow in dense, aromatic clusters measuring up to 15 cm in diameter flower cluster characteristics.
Nutritionally and chemically, the plant is recognized for its bitter taste, which leads to its use as a spice and as an antimicrobial agent in beer production bitter leaf applications. The composition of the leaves is dynamic; for instance, magnesium, copper, and lead are more concentrated in fresh leaves, whereas calcium, ash, fiber, lipid content, and iron levels increase in dried leaves nutritional composition changes. Processing methods significantly impact nutrient retention, as cooking reduces the vitamin C content of dried *Vernonia amygdalina* by 61% vitamin C reduction. The plant also contains oil, starch, and iodine leaf chemical components.
Extensive research has been conducted on the plant's phytochemical and pharmacological profiles, covering its potential antidiabetic, anthelmintic, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties diverse pharmacological research. Scientific discourse on the plant has been synthesized in various review articles, such as those by *Frontiers*, which updated earlier work by Yeap et al. (2010) and Ijeh and Ejike (2011) review article updates.
openrouter/google/gemini-3.1-flash-lite-preview definitive 100% confidence
Vernonia amygdalina, commonly known as "bitter leaf," is an African medicinal plant that has been the subject of extensive scientific research research on Vernonia amygdalina, including studies on its nutritional composition, phytochemical properties, and pharmacological activities research on Vernonia amygdalina. According to a review published by *Frontiers*, research on this species has been systematically compiled through exhaustive database searches research on Vernonia amygdalina, focusing on peer-reviewed articles and theses research on Vernonia amygdalina.
Scientific investigations into *Vernonia amygdalina* cover a broad spectrum of applications:
* Nutritional and Phytochemical Analysis: Numerous studies have analyzed the plant's proximate, mineral, and phytochemical contents research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina. Researchers have also examined how different factors—such as vegetative zones research on Vernonia amygdalina, processing or de-bittering methods research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina, and drying techniques research on Vernonia amygdalina—influence its nutritional profile.
* Pharmacological Potential: The plant is recognized for its medicinal values, with studies documenting its antibacterial research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina, antifungal research on Vernonia amygdalina, and antioxidant activities research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina. Specific compounds like luteolin and vernodalol have been investigated for their effects on cell viability and enzymes such as α-glucosidase research on Vernonia amygdalina.
* Comparative Studies: It is frequently compared with other plants like *Gongronema latifolium* research on Vernonia amygdalina, *Ocimum gratissimum* research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina, *Azadirachta indica* research on Vernonia amygdalina, and *Vernonia hymenolepis* research on Vernonia amygdalina to evaluate its relative medicinal and nutritional benefits.
The authors of the comprehensive review referenced by *Frontiers* state that their work was conducted without financial support or conflicts of interest research on Vernonia amygdalina, research on Vernonia amygdalina.
Facts (231)
Sources
Vernonia amygdalina: a comprehensive review of the ... frontiersin.org 230 facts
referenceOboh F. O. and Masodje H. I. (2009) investigated the nutritional and antimicrobial properties of Vernonia amygdalina leaves.
procedureFor the treatment of snake bites, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are crushed and used to wash the patient's body or the infected area, according to Amde (2017) and Melkamu (2021).
claimIn traditional practices involving Vernonia amygdalina, it is believed that when an evil-spirited person enters a home, water in a beaker falls, allowing the patient to be identified.
referenceNwogwugwu et al. (2015) analyzed the effect of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) extract on the growth performance, carcass quality, and economics of production for broiler chickens.
referenceUsunomena and Ngozi performed a phytochemical analysis and determined the proximate composition of Vernonia amygdalina in 2016.
measurementVernonia amygdalina grows in regions with up to 2,800 m of elevation and 750–2000 mm of annual rainfall, including forest edges, areas surrounding rivers and lakes, woodlands, and grasslands.
claimSoaking Vernonia amygdalina leaves reduces crude fiber content, whereas salt abrasion increases crude fiber content.
referenceHabtamu and Melaku (2018) investigated antibacterial and antioxidant compounds from the flower extracts of Vernonia amygdalina.
claimInvestigations into Vernonia amygdalina demonstrate notable chemical variations between plant preparations or extracts in terms of both the type and quantity of phytochemicals present.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used for topical application on wounds by crushing the leaves.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves and shoots are used to treat urinating problems and bloating by crushing and pounding the fresh leaves, then administering them orally.
claimThe nutrient content of Vernonia amygdalina is reduced when the leaves are abraded to remove the bitter flavor during soup and other meal preparation.
procedureGebeyehu (2020) reports that Vernonia amygdalina roots are prepared for treating evil eye (H) by drying and grinding the root into a powder, administered by inhaling the smoked powder.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves and roots are used to treat worms, malaria, fever, and indigestion by preparing a decoction and drinking it.
claimHexadecanoic acid ethyl ester has been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Olusola-Makinde et al. (2021).
claimVernodalinol has been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Luo et al. (2011).
claimVernonia amygdalina is commonly referred to as 'bitter leaf' due to its bitter flavor and is used both medicinally and as a vegetable.
claimIsolated compounds from Vernonia amygdalina have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-helminthic activities in various studies.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used to treat wounds by crushing one spoonful of leaf powder and applying it as a dressing on the wound.
claimVernonia amygdalina is an indigenous African plant that thrives throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa and is widely spread in Asia.
claimIsolated compounds from Vernonia amygdalina demonstrate antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antihelmintic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory potencies.
claimVernonia amygdalina leaves are combined with butter and coffee seeds, leaves of Ruta chalepensis, leaves of Eucalyptus globulus, or local 'katukala' and salt to treat diarrhea, malaria, urinary issues, anthrax, and internal parasites.
claimIn Ethiopia, Vernonia amygdalina is used to produce a honey wine called 'Tej' and as hops in the preparation of 'tella' beer.
referenceErasto et al. (2007) investigated antioxidant constituents present in Vernonia amygdalina leaves.
referenceNowak et al. (2022) conducted a phytochemical analysis of polyphenols in leaf extract from the Vernonia amygdalina Delile plant growing in Uganda.
imageFigure 1 in the review provides a visual representation of the Vernonia amygdalina species, specifically displaying its leaf and flower.
claimThe review article on Vernonia amygdalina updates previous reviews conducted by Yeap et al. (2010) and Ijeh and Ejike (2011) to provide current knowledge on the therapeutic herb.
procedureAbebe (2011) and Amsalu (2020) report that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating Athlete's foot (H) by crushing and squeezing the leaves, applied topically.
referenceBhattacharjee B., Lakshminarasimhan P., Bhattacharjee A., Agrawala D. K., and Pathak M. K. published 'Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Asteraceae)–An African medicinal plant introduced in India' in Zoo’s Print in 2013, volume 28, issue 5, pages 18–20.
claimGirma et al. (2022) note that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are used for treating blood clotting (H), though the preparation method is not described.
procedureGirma et al. (2022) and Mekonnen et al. (2022) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bloating and malaria (H) by crushing fresh leaves and combining them with water, administered orally.
referenceUsunobun and Okolie analyzed the phytochemical, trace element, and mineral composition of Vernonia amygdalina leaves in 2015.
measurementVernonia amygdalina contains 305 mg/g of flavonoids, 104 mg/g of phytate, 6 mg/g of saponin, 1.7 mg/mL of tannin, and 20 mg/mL of alkaloids.
measurementThe ethanol extract of Vernonia amygdalina contains 99 mg/g of tannins, 70 mg/g of flavonoids, 64 mg/g of saponins, 36 mg/g of phenols, and 32 mg/g of alkaloids.
procedureVernonia amygdalina root is used to treat tonsillitis by crushing and mixing the root with salt, then administering it orally.
referenceAli M., Diso S. U., Waiya S. A., and Abdallah M. S. published a study in 2019 titled 'Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina)' in the Annals of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, volume 2, issue 4, pages 01–07.
claimErasto et al. (2006) reported the potential antibacterial and antifungal effects of Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureKindie (2023) reports that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating diarrhea (H) by chopping the leaf, combining it with coffee grounds, and blending with butter, administered orally.
claimThe leaves and shoots of Vernonia amygdalina are used as fodder for goats.
claimSqueezing bitter leaves (Vernonia amygdalina) with palm oil improves nutrient retention.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contain 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid, luteolin hexoside, 3,4-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and 4,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, as reported by Nowak et al. (2022).
referenceOkolie et al. (2021) evaluated the nutritional and phytochemical compositions of two bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) accessions in Nigeria.
claimVernonia amygdalina is native to tropical Africa.
claimVernonia amygdalina requires direct sunlight, prefers a humid environment, and favors humus-rich soils.
referenceIjeh I. I. and Ejike C. E. C. C. reviewed the medicinal potentials of Vernonia amygdalina Del. in a 2011 article published in the Journal of Medicinal Plants Research.
claimEpivernodalol has been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Oluyege (2019).
claimThe bitter taste of Vernonia amygdalina is caused by secondary metabolites, including saponins, tannins, alkaloids, and glycosides, which act as anti-dietary components.
claimThe review included only research articles, master’s theses, and doctoral theses published in English that provided complete information regarding Vernonia amygdalina.
measurementVernonia amygdalina produces small, creamy white, thistle-like flower heads that measure 10 mm in length.
claimErasto et al. (2007) reported the potential antioxidant effects of Vernonia amygdalina.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contain 1, 8 Cineole, beta-Pinene, and Myrtenal, according to Asawalam and Hassanali (2006).
referenceTsado et al. (2015) studied the effect of various processing methods on the nutritional composition of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), published in the IOSR Journal of Pharmacy.
claimTo prevent changes in flavor, color, or nutritional content, dried Vernonia amygdalina leaves must be packaged appropriately and kept at the proper temperature when consumed out of their fresh form, according to Degu et al. (2021b).
claimVernonia amygdalina is used in traditional and herbal medicine to treat conditions including intestinal worms, headaches, bloating, malaria, urinary problems, herpes, athlete's foot, blood clotting, dyspepsia, menstrual pain, gout, wounds, tonsillitis, evil eye, and skin infections, according to Abebe (2011), Jima and Megersa (2018), Girma et al. (2022), and Mekonnen et al. (2022).
procedureTo expel leeches, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by crushing and squeezing the fresh leaves, then ingested orally, as reported by Abrha et al. (2020).
claimShokunbi O. S., Anionwu O. A., Sonuga O. S., and Tayo G. O. (2011) studied the effect of post-harvest processing on the nutrient and anti-nutrient compositions of Vernonia amygdalina leaves.
referenceImohiosen O., Samaila D., and Elisha A. conducted a comparative phytochemical analysis of dry bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina Delile) and sweet bitterleaf (Vernonia hymenolepis) to evaluate their nutritional and medicinal benefits in a 2021 study published in the International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research Innovations.
claimVernonia amygdalina is utilized as a food source in addition to its medical properties.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contribute to human nutritional requirements and food security because they contain concentrations of proximate composition, minerals, and vitamins.
procedureKassa et al. (2016) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating Anthrax (H) by blending them with Justicia schimperiana, Croton macrostachyus, Teclea nobilis, and Achyranthes aspera leaves, administered through the left side intranasally and the left ear.
referenceNkechi O. (2023) investigated the effects of de-bittering treatments on the nutrient composition, carotenoid content, and profile of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina).
claimThe nutritional composition of Vernonia amygdalina varies based on soil type, environmental conditions, and geographic location.
procedureFor the treatment of stomachache, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are squeezed and consumed orally, according to Birhan et al. (2017).
claimBoiling Vernonia amygdalina leaves in water without squeezing increases beta-carotene concentration but causes the loss of water-soluble vitamins.
claimVernonia amygdalina is known by various common names in different languages, such as 'ebicha' in Oromifa, 'grawa' in Amharic, and 'vernonia tree' in English.
referenceDanladi, S., Hassan, M. A., Masa'ud, I. A., and Ibrahim, U. I. published a mini-review titled 'Vernonia amygdalina Del: a mini review' in the Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology in 2018.
claimVernonia amygdalina, commonly known as bitter leaf, is a medicinal plant traditionally used for therapeutic properties including antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects to treat conditions ranging from infectious to digestive issues.
referenceKaur D., Kaur N., and Chopra A. published a comprehensive review on the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Vernonia amygdalina in the Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry in 2019.
procedureFor the treatment of menstrual pain, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are crushed, boiled, and combined with honey in water, and one tea cup is taken orally each day for three days, according to Tassew (2019).
claimOlumide M. D., Ajayi O. A., and Akinboye O. E. (2019) conducted a comparative study of the proximate, mineral, and phytochemical composition of the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum, Vernonia amygdalina, and Moringa oleifera.
claimPhytochemicals found in Vernonia amygdalina—specifically alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics, and tannins—exhibit biological activities including antimicrobial effects, antioxidant properties, disease prevention and therapy, free radical scavenging, anticancer activity, and antiviral potential.
referenceZubairu A. Y., Mukhtar M., Saidu I., Ibrahim Z., Isah S., and Garga M. A. (2019) investigated the antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) by separating component fractions using column chromatography.
procedureTo treat febrile malaria and helminthiasis, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by maceration with water and ingested orally, as reported by Tuasha et al. (2018).
referenceAgbankpé A. J., Bankolé S. H., Dougnon T. J., Yèhouénou B., Hounmanou Y. M. G., and Baba-Moussa L. S. published a study in 2015 comparing the nutritional values of Vernonia amygdalina, Crateva adansonii, and Sesamum radiatum as vegetables used in traditional medicine for treating bacterial diarrhoea in southern Benin, published in Food and Public Health, volume 5, issue 4, pages 144–149.
referenceAdewole E. and Olabiran T. published a study in 2015 titled 'Antioxidant activities and nutritional compositions of Vernonia amygdalina' in the Academic Journal of Food Research, volume 3, issue 3, pages 026–031.
procedureFor the treatment of neck swelling, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are prepared by squeezing and applied topically, according to Abrha et al. (2020).
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used to treat vomiting and stomach-ache by crushing leaves cut from seven different parts with a small amount of water, filtering the mixture, and drinking it.
measurementVernonia amygdalina can reach a height of approximately 23 feet when fully grown.
procedureTo treat abdominal pain (L), Vernonia amygdalina seeds are prepared by blending, dissolving in water, and filtering, as reported by Hassen et al.
claimThe abbreviation 'VA' stands for Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureFor the treatment of stomachache and malaria, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are blended with Rumex nervosus and Justicia schimperiana leaves, squeezed with water, and the resulting juice is consumed orally, according to Wendimu et al. (2021).
claimOlusola-Makinde O., Olabanji O. B., and Ibisanmi T. A. (2021) evaluated the bioactive compounds of Vernonia amygdalina Delile extracts and their antibacterial effects on water-related bacteria.
claimVernonia amygdalina is used in traditional medicine to treat diarrhea, diabetes, wound healing, tonsillitis, evil eye, retained placenta, headache, eye disease, intestinal parasite, bloating, hepatitis, toothache, anthrax, malaria, urine retention, gastritis, stomach disorders, and snake bites.
procedureFor the treatment of leeches in cattle, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are prepared by blending pounded leaves with Premna schimperi, Nicotiana tabacum, Calpurnia aurea, and Croton macrostachyus, and then fed orally to the cattle, according to Kassa et al. (2016).
procedureTo treat headaches, ten Vernonia amygdalina leaves are crushed and applied to the head for three days, as reported by Jima and Megersa (2018).
referenceDjeujo, F. M., Stablum, V., Pangrazzi, E., Ragazzi, E., and Froldi, G. published a study on the effects of luteolin and vernodalol from Vernonia amygdalina leaf and root extracts on α-glucosidase, glycation, ROS, cell viability, and in silico ADMET parameters in Pharmaceutics in 2023.
measurementThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are medium to dark green, oblong-lanceolate, measuring 10–15 cm in length and 4–5 cm in width, with visible red veining, a tapering apex and base, and a petiole typically 1–2 cm in length.
referenceAli M., Muazu L., Diso S. U., and Ibrahim I. S. published a study in 2020 titled 'Determination of proximate, phytochemicals and minerals composition of vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf)' in Nutraceutical Research, volume 1, issue 1, pages 1–8.
referenceFrederick Eleyinmi et al. (2008) compared the nutritional composition of Gongronema latifolium and Vernonia amygdalina.
referenceOgunnowo et al. (2010) conducted a comparative antioxidant, phytochemical, and proximate analysis of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Talinum triangulare.
procedureKassa et al. (2016) report that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bloating in cattle by mashing the leaves and blending them with Justicia schimperiana and salt, administered orally.
referenceMomoh M. A., Muhamed U., Agboke A. A., Akpabio E. I., and Osonwa U. E. (2012) compared the immunological effects of aqueous Vernonia amygdalina extract and the immune booster Immunace® on HIV/AIDS clients.
referenceIfedibaluChukwu E. I., Aparoop D., and Kamaruz Z. investigated the antidiabetic, anthelmintic, and antioxidation properties of phytocompounds isolated from the methanolic stem-bark of Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Asteraceae) in a 2020 study published in Scientific African.
referenceUdochukwu et al. analyzed the phytochemical composition of Vernonia amygdalina and Ocimum gratissimum extracts and evaluated their antibacterial activity against drug-resistant bacteria in 2015.
measurementAn unidentified compound isolated from Vernonia amygdalina exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria at a concentration of 1 mg/mL, with an inhibition zone ranging from 9 to 14 mm.
claimVernonia amygdalina leaves maintained at 4°C preserve more nutritional and therapeutic characteristics than when stored at -20°C, according to a study by Tonukari et al. (2015).
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contain Ethyl-2-O-benzyl-d-arabinofuranoside, -9, 12, 15, octadecatrienoic acid, Squalene, and Phytol, as reported by Oladunmoye et al. (2019).
referenceYakubu et al. investigated the effect of different processing methods on the nutritional contents of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) in 2012.
procedureWubetu et al. (2017) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bladder distention by pulverizing the leaves in water, administered orally.
claimLuo et al. (2011) reported the potential anti-cancer effects of Vernonia amygdalina.
referenceNwaoguikpe R. N. (2010) studied the effect of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) extract on the blood glucose levels of diabetic rats.
claimNguyen et al. (2021) reported the potential anti-inflammatory effects of Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureFor the treatment of tapeworm and Ascaris, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are crushed and mixed with water for oral consumption, according to Teklehaymanot et al. (2007).
claimPhytochemical screening of ethanol and aqueous leaf extracts of Vernonia amygdalina revealed the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, steroids, and cardiac glycosides.
referenceThe study titled 'Assessing the phytochemical contents and antimicrobial activity of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) on micro-organisms' was published in the International Journal of Advanced Research, volume 9, issue 4, pages 477–483.
measurementVernonia amygdalina leaves contain concentrations of lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) that are higher than those recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), according to Ssempijja et al. (2020).
referenceNursuhaili et al. (2019) reviewed the medicinal values, agronomic practices, and postharvest handlings of Vernonia amygdalina.
referenceAsawalam E. F. and Hassanali A. published 'Constituents of the essential oil of Vernonia amygdalina as maize weevil protectants' in Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems in 2006, volume 6, issue 2, pages 95–102.
referenceLyumugabe Loshima F., Uyisenga J. P., Bayingana C., and Songa E. B. (2017) analyzed the antimicrobial activity and phytochemicals of Vernonia aemulans, Vernonia amygdalina, Lantana camara, and Markhamia lutea leaves for use as natural beer preservatives.
claimVernonia amygdalina is a perennial shrub that belongs to the Asteraceae family.
procedureLulekal et al. (2014) and Beyi (2018) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves and seeds are prepared for treating diarrhea (H) by combining fresh leaves with pounded seeds and blending with butter, administered orally.
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are decocted and consumed by adults (three to seven leaves with one cup of coffee) or children (half the amount), as reported by Jima and Megersa (2018).
referenceErasto et al. (2006) identified bioactive sesquiterpene lactones in the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina.
claimLuteolin has been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, and Vernodalol has been isolated from the roots of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Djeujo et al. (2023).
procedureTo treat gastro-intestinal disorders, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by crushing and ingested orally, as reported by Asfaw et al. (2021) and Asfaw et al. (2023a).
procedureAmde (2017) and Melkamu (2021) report that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bloating and urine retention (L) by squeezing and mixing the leaves with water, administered orally to cattle in the morning and at night until recovery.
referenceMuluye R. A., Berihun A. M., Gelagle A. A., Lemmi W. G., Assamo F. T., Gemeda H. B., et al. (2021) evaluated the in vivo antiplasmodial and toxicological effects of Calpurnia aurea, Aloe debrana, Vernonia amygdalina, and Croton macrostachyus extracts in mice.
claimFuture research on Vernonia amygdalina should clarify the mechanisms of action of important phytochemicals, conduct clinical trials to support conventional claims, investigate possible synergistic effects of compounds, and create standardized formulations for therapeutic applications.
claimThe authors of the article 'Vernonia amygdalina: a comprehensive review of the...' declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, or publication of the article.
claimGirma et al. (2022) note that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are used for treating dyspepsia (H), though the preparation method is not described.
claimVernonia amygdalina is widely grown in Yemen, Brazil, South Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.
procedureThe methodology for gathering data on Vernonia amygdalina involved an exhaustive online search of Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Elsevier, and Sci-Hub using keywords such as nutritional composition, isolated phytochemicals, pharmacological activities, traditional uses, and methods of preparation.
claimVernonia amygdalina is likely the most widely used medicinal herb in the genus Vernonia.
referenceAlara O. R., Abdurahman N. H., Ukaegbu C. I., and Kabbashi N. A. published a study in 2019 titled 'Extraction and characterization of bioactive compounds in Vernonia amygdalina leaf ethanolic extract comparing Soxhlet and microwave-assisted extraction techniques' in the Journal of Taibah University for Science, volume 13, issue 1, pages 414–422.
claimThe authors of the review note that limited research has been conducted to date to evaluate the pharmacological activity of chemicals extracted from Vernonia amygdalina using in vitro and in vivo techniques.
claimPaul T. A., Taibat I., Kenneth E. I., Haruna N. I., Baba O. V., and Helma A. R. (2018) performed phytochemical and antibacterial analysis on aqueous and alcoholic extracts of Vernonia amygdalina (del.) leaves.
claimVernonia amygdalina leaves contain oil, starch, and iodine.
referenceLuo X., Jiang Y., Fronczek F. R., Lin C., Izevbigie E. B., and Lee K. S. (2011) isolated and determined the structure of the sesquiterpene lactone vernodalinol from Vernonia amygdalina extracts.
procedureTo treat abdominal pain (H), Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by grinding and dissolving in water, then administered by drinking, as reported by Getaneh and Girma (2014).
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used to halt bleeding by crushing fresh leaves and applying them topically to a wound.
claimVernonia amygdalina, commonly known as bitter leaf, is used globally as a traditional medicine, with various parts including leaves, roots, seeds, shoots, and stems utilized to treat common illnesses, according to Ugbogu et al. (2021).
procedureTo treat headache and eye disease, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are pulverized and powdered, then the smoke is fumigated into the nose and mouth, as reported by Assefa et al. (2021).
measurementBased on the fresh weight of Vernonia amygdalina leaves, the mineral content was measured at 61.55 μg/g of phosphorus, 8.2 × 10−3 μg/g of selenium, 4.71 μg/g of iron, and 1.13 μg/g of zinc.
procedureTsegay et al. (2019) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating Ascariasis by pulverizing the leaves, administered orally.
measurementA study on fresh green Vernonia amygdalina leaves found an 83.0% moisture content (17.02% dry matter), 1.30% protein content, and 0.50% ash content.
claimPhytochemical screening of Vernonia amygdalina revealed the presence of phytate, oxalate, cyanogenic glycosides, anthraquinone, and phenol.
referenceGarba and Oviosa (2019) evaluated the effect of different drying methods on the elemental and nutritional composition of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf).
procedureFor the treatment of retained placenta in animals, the roots of Vernonia amygdalina are crushed and mixed with cold water, and the animal is allowed to consume the mixture orally, according to Lulekal et al. (2014).
measurementVernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) contains 139 mg/g of alkaloids, 180 mg/g of flavonoids, 60 mg/g of saponin, 2.3 mg/g of oxalate, and 167 mg/g of phytate.
claimThe synergistic effects of combining Vernonia amygdalina plant parts with other plant parts, local preparations, and animal byproducts boost the effectiveness of herbal medicine cures.
procedureTo treat febrile illness, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by boiling fresh leaves in water and the steam is used for fumigation, as reported by Tahir et al. (2021).
claimVernolide and Vernodalol have been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Erasto et al. (2006).
referenceAremu O. I., Asiru I. D., and Femi-Oyewo N. N. published 'Formulation and antifungal screening of Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Asteraceae) leaf extract ointment' in the Indian Journal of Novel Drug Delivery in 2018, volume 10, issue 1, pages 11–16.
claimQuasie O., Zhang Y. M., Zhang H. J., Luo J., and Kong L. Y. (2016) isolated four new steroid saponins with highly oxidized side chains from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina.
claimResearchers have identified that Vernonia amygdalina contains bioactive molecules with potential anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-helminthic effects.
claimChemical analysis of Vernonia amygdalina reveals the presence of flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, steroids, cardiac glycosides, oxalates, phytates, cyanogenic glycosides, and phenols.
claimCompounds isolated from Vernonia amygdalina include vernolide, luteolin, vernodalol, vernoamyoside A, vernoamyoside B, isorhamnetin, glucuronolactone, and 1-Heneicosenol O-β-D-glucopyranoside.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are considered an excellent food source due to high concentrations of protein, dry matter, crude fiber, ash, and minerals including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron.
procedureTo treat herpes, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are dried, pulverized, and powdered, then fumigated through the nose and mouth, as reported by Abebe (2011).
measurementVernonia amygdalina compounds exhibit antioxidant activities through DPPH scavenging properties with an IC50 of 0.03 mg/ml.
claimThe authors of the article 'Vernonia amygdalina: a comprehensive review of the...' declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
referenceTula et al. performed a systematic study comparing the phytochemicals and antimicrobial activities of different parts of the plant Vernonia amygdalina in 2012.
referenceShewo B. S. and Girma B. (2017) reviewed the nutritional and medicinal values of Vernonia amygdalina and its applications in human and veterinary medicine.
claimThe nutritional composition of Vernonia amygdalina is rich in vital nutrients, vitamins, and minerals, while its biological and pharmacological characteristics are determined by phytochemicals including flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds.
measurementOkolie et al. (2021) quantified the mineral content of Vernonia amygdalina leaves as 180.36 mg/100g of sodium, 162.54 mg/100g of magnesium, 27.8 mg/100g of phosphorus, 949.35 mg/100mg of potassium, 1.13 mg/100g of iron, and 0.48 mg/100g of zinc.
claimOlowoyeye O. J., Sunday A., Abideen A. A., Owolabi O. A., Oluwadare O. E., and Ogundele J. A. (2022) found that vegetative zones affect the nutritional composition of Vernonia amygdalina leaves in Ekiti State, Nigeria.
claimFeeding bitter leaf meal with drinking water to birds numerically enhanced their growth rate.
procedureChekole et al. (2015) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating dandruff (H) by freshly pounding the leaves to obtain a creamy texture, applied topically to the affected area.
procedureLulekal et al. (2014), Beyi (2018), Molla (2019), and Kindie (2023) document that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bloating (L) by crushing fresh leaves and combining them with water, administered orally to cattle.
claimVernonia amygdalina contains numerous phytochemicals including alkaloids, glycosides, sesquiterpene lactones, steroids, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, tannins, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, resins, lignans, furocoumarines, naphthodianthrones, proteins, and peptides.
claimIn Nigeria, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are used to prepare a dish called 'Onugbo' (bitter leaf soup), which serves as an appetizer and digestive tonic.
claimVernonia amygdalina is used as a bittering agent (spice) and as an antimicrobial agent in beer production due to its bitter taste.
claimVernolide and vernodalol have been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as documented by Abay et al. (2015).
referenceThe study 'Optimization of essential oil extraction from bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) by using an ultrasonic method and response surface methodology' was published in the International Journal of Chemical Engineering in 2022.
procedureFor the treatment of malaria, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are combined with crushed Ruta chalepensis leaves, prepared as a beverage with cold water, and consumed as one cup daily for three to five days, according to Amde (2017) and Melkamu (2021).
claimVernonia amygdalina leaves contain vitamins A, C (ascorbic acid), E, B1, B2, niacin, and carotenoid.
measurementThe quantitative proximate evaluation of Vernonia amygdalina leaf extract showed it incorporates 37% carbohydrates, 28.2% proteins, 5.5% fats, 11.6% crude fiber, 8.4% moisture content, and 9.3% ash content.
claimProcessing methods for Vernonia amygdalina, such as overnight soaking, blanching, and abrasion with or without salt, reduce the antioxidant capacity, protein content, and moisture content of the leaves.
claimOluyege J. O., Orjiakor P. I., Olowe B. M., Miriam U. O., and Oluwasegun O. D. (2019) investigated the antimicrobial potential of Vernonia amygdalina and honey against vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from clinical and environmental sources.
procedureHaile (2022) reports that Vernonia amygdalina leaves and roots are prepared for treating Anthrax (L) by crushing them and dissolving the mixture in water, administered orally to cattle.
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites in animals, Vernonia amygdalina leaf juice is extracted and combined with salt and “local beer” or “local katikala” before being fed to the animal, as reported by Kindie (2023) and Beyi (2018).
claimThe stems of Vernonia amygdalina contain Glucuronolactone, 10-Geranilanyl-O-β-D-xyloside, 11α-Hydroxyurs-5,12-dien-28-oic acid-3α,25-olide, 6β,10β,14β-Trimethylheptadecan-15α-olyl-15-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl1,5β-olide, and 1-Heneicosenol O-β-D-glucopyranoside, as reported by IfedibaluChukwu et al. (2020).
measurementA compound from Vernonia amygdalina inhibits HT-29 cell viability with an IC50 of 5.7 µM and exhibits antioxidant activity with a scavenger effect comparable to ascorbic acid.
procedureFor the treatment of nematodes, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are administered orally, according to Agisho et al. (2014).
claimIn ethnobotanical studies, the leaf of Vernonia amygdalina is the part most frequently claimed for treating various diseases, followed by the root, shoot, stem, and seed.
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites and stomach problems, Vernonia amygdalina fresh leaves are crushed, combined with water, filtered, and drunk, as reported by Kebebew and Mohamed (2017).
measurementDried Vernonia amygdalina leaves have higher calcium and iron content, while fresh leaves have higher magnesium, copper, and lead content.
claimVernoamyoside A, B, C, and D have been isolated from the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, as reported by Quasie et al. (2016).
procedureWendimu et al. (2021) document that Vernonia amygdalina shoots are prepared for treating evil spirit (H) by pulverizing and combining with water, then placing the mixture in a beaker to be displayed in front of the room.
claimAbrading Vernonia amygdalina leaves significantly decreases nutrient and antinutrient (phytate and tannin) levels, causes a large decrease in proximate and mineral composition, increases magnesium content, and results in no significant change to carbohydrate content.
procedureTo treat gout, Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by boiling the leaves with water and applied via fumigation through oral, nasal, and dermal routes, as reported by Chekole (2017).
measurementOkolie et al. (2021) measured the vitamin content of Vernonia amygdalina leaves as 0.16 mg/100g of vitamin B1, 0.22 mg/100g of vitamin B2, 0.15 mg/100mg of vitamin B3, and 0.32 mg/100g of vitamin E.
procedureCheklie (2020) reports that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared by crushing and soaking in honey to treat Ameba and Giardia, administered orally or intranasally.
claimThe plant Vernonia amygdalina contains various chemical compounds, including Tricosane, Vernolid, Isorhamnetin, and Luteolin in its flowers, as reported by Habtamu and Melaku (2018).
referenceOjimelukwe P. C. and Amaechi N. (2019) analyzed the composition of Vernonia amygdalina and its potential health benefits.
procedureChekole et al. (2015) report that Vernonia amygdalina leaves are prepared for treating bloating (H) by crushing fresh leaves, administered orally with water.
claimVernonia amygdalina is an indigenous African plant that grows in most parts of sub-Saharan Africa.
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites, Vernonia amygdalina leaf juice is extracted and one cup is ingested orally, as reported by Kindie et al. (2021) and Amsalu et al. (2018).
measurementVernonia amygdalina flowers are packed densely in axillary and terminal clusters that form flat clusters measuring 15 cm in diameter and possessing a lovely aroma.
referenceUgbogu et al. reviewed the phytochemistry, ethnobotanical uses, and pharmacological potentials of the medicinal plant Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) in 2021.
measurementThe aqueous leaf extract of Vernonia amygdalina contains 27 mg/g of saponins, 46 mg/g of alkaloids, 122 mg/g of flavonoids, 17 mg/g of terpenoids, 12 mg/g of tannins, 48 mg/g of steroids, and 36 mg/g of phenols.
claimResearchers have identified numerous compounds from the leaves, flowers, and stems of Vernonia amygdalina using NMR techniques and GC-MS analysis.
claimVernonia amygdalina is a green vegetable utilized for both ethnoveterinary and ethnomedical purposes, possessing multiple bioactivities.
accountVernonia amygdalina has been utilized for generations in Africa for both food and medicinal purposes, including the management and treatment of various health conditions.
procedureFor the treatment of stomach ache and worm expulsion, the roots and leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are combined to make a beverage and consumed orally, according to Wondimu et al. (2007).
referenceJohnson M., Kolawole O. S., and Olufunmilayo L. A. performed a phytochemical analysis and in vitro evaluation of the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of methanolic leaf extract of Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a 2015 study published in the International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences.
claimIn Vernonia amygdalina, blanching and abrasion without salt decrease fat content, while soaking and abrasion with salt enhance fat content.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contain varying concentrations of protein, moisture, carbohydrates, ash, fat, minerals, oils, and vitamins.
referenceAgomuo J. K., Akajiaku L. O., Alaka I. C., and Taiwo M. published a study in 2016 titled 'Mineral and antinutrients of fresh and squeeze washed bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) as affected by traditional de-bittering methods' in the European Journal of Food Science and Technology, volume 4, issue 2, pages 21–30.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used to treat toothache by chewing the leaves.
referenceNguyen T. X. T., Dang D. L., Ngo V. Q., Trinh T. C., Trinh Q. N., Do T. D., et al. (2021) studied the anti-inflammatory activity of a new compound derived from Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureLeaves of Vernonia amygdalina, Teclea nobilis, Croton macrostachyus, Justicia schimperiana, and Achyranthes aspera are pounded together and administered through the left ear and left nostril as a treatment.
claimVernonia amygdalina seeds contain vitamin C, vitamins B1 and B2, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and manganese.
procedureVernonia amygdalina leaves are used to treat urinary problems by blending crushed fresh leaves with the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus to create a concoction, which is administered orally.
procedureBlanching and abrasion are methods used to reduce anti-nutritional components such as tannin and phytate in Vernonia amygdalina leaves, according to Yakubu et al. (2012).
claimThe proximal composition of ash, moisture, crude fat, crude fiber, protein, and carbohydrate has been studied in the stem, root, and seed of Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureTo treat impotency, Vernonia amygdalina fresh roots are concocted and consumed by drinking with “tella,” as reported by Chekole et al. (2015).
claimThe stems and roots of Vernonia amygdalina are abundant in vitamins E and A, protein, ash, fat, zinc, iron, copper, ascorbic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, and nicotinamide, while starch is found only in the stem.
claimOvernight soaking, blanching, and abrasion significantly reduce the mineral, tannin, and phytate contents of Vernonia amygdalina.
procedureFor the treatment of stomach disorders, the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina are crushed, soaked in water, and one bottle is consumed orally, according to Cheklie (2020).
referenceOffor C. E. (2014) performed comparative chemical analyses of Vernonia amygdalina and Azadirachta indica leaves.
referenceEtta et al. (2017) analyzed the proximate composition of five accessions of Vernonia amygdalina (del) in south eastern Nigeria.
claimThe leaves of Vernonia amygdalina contain luteolin-7-O-gluc-glucopyranoside (cynaroside) and Vernonioside V, as reported by Nguyen et al. (2021).
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites, abdominal pain, malaria, gastritis, and retained placenta, Vernonia amygdalina leaves and stems are prepared as an infusion and taken orally, as reported by Teka et al. (2020).
claimAbrasion increases the ash content of Vernonia amygdalina, while blanching and soaking significantly reduce ash content.
claimVernonia amygdalina possesses flaky, rough bark that is gray or brown in color.
claimDrying Vernonia amygdalina leaves increases the concentration of most proximate ingredients, specifically ash, fiber, and lipid contents.
referenceUgwoke et al. documented the phytochemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses of Vernonia amygdalina leaf extract in 2010.
procedureTo treat jaundice, Vernonia amygdalina fresh or dry leaves are pounded, as reported by Kassa et al.
claimNumerous studies have identified varying concentrations of protein (including essential amino acids), moisture, carbohydrates, ash, and fat within the leaves of Vernonia amygdalina.
claimSpontaneous fermentation of Vernonia amygdalina leaves for 5 days at room temperature results in stable mineral content, but significant losses in vitamins and a noticeable rise in ash and fiber content, according to Ifesan et al. (2014).
measurementDrying Vernonia amygdalina leaves increases ash content from 2.56% to 11.20%, fiber content from 1.62% to 4.02%, and lipid content from 0.62% to 2.64%.
referenceOboh G. (2006) examined the nutritive value and in vitro haemolytic properties of Vernonia amygdalina leaves on human erythrocytes.
referenceInusa A., Sanusi S. B., Linatoc A. C., Mainassara M. M., and Awawu J. J. analyzed the phytochemical composition and antimicrobial activity of bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) collected from Lapai, Niger State, Nigeria, against selected pathogenic microorganisms in a 2018 study published in the Scientific World Journal.
measurementPowdered Vernonia amygdalina leaves contain 14.23 mg/kg of zinc, 322 mg/kg of iron, 33.25 mg/kg of phosphate, 19.50 mg/kg of copper, 3.75 mg/kg of chromium, 4.99 mg/kg of cadmium, 483.06 mg/kg of sodium, 627.98 mg/kg of potassium, 6,813 mg/kg of magnesium, and 12,641.76 mg/kg of calcium.
referenceDegu S., Meresa A., Animaw Z., Jegnie M., Asfaw A., and Tegegn G. published a comprehensive review titled 'Vernonia amygdalina: a comprehensive review of the nutritional makeup, traditional medicinal use, and pharmacology of isolated phytochemicals and compounds' in Frontiers in Natural Products.
procedureTo treat intestinal parasites, fresh Vernonia amygdalina roots are consumed orally, as reported by Bogale et al. (2023).
claimTraditional processing methods for bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina), including boiling, squeeze washing, and salting, result in the loss of proximate nutrients, calcium, iron, potassium, and vitamin C.
claimA study comparing fresh and dried leaves of Vernonia amygdalina found that magnesium, copper, and lead concentrations were higher in fresh leaves, while calcium, ash, fiber, lipid content, and iron were higher in dried leaves.
procedureFresh Vernonia amygdalina root infused with 'tella' is utilized as a cure for impotence.
Nutritional potential of underutilized edible plant species in coffee ... link.springer.com Apr 23, 2021 1 fact
measurementCooking reduces vitamin C content in Amaranthus species by 65%, in dried Vernonia amygdalina by 61%, and in dried Adansonia digitata by almost 100%, according to Yadav and Sehgal (1995) and FAO (1990).