Correlations between anticorrelated brain networks during meditation may indicate increased integration and volitional control in recruiting networks when contextually appropriate.
Breath focus in meditation integrates conscious awareness with ongoing, dynamic viscerosomatic function.
The development of S-ART through meditation is proposed to modulate self-specifying and narrative self-networks through an integrative fronto-parietal control network.
Cahn and Polich (2006) reviewed EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies regarding meditation states and traits.
Tang et al. (2010) found that short-term meditation induces white matter changes in the anterior cingulate, as published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.
Luders, E., Toga, A. W., Lepore, N., and Gaser, C. (2009) published 'The underlying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: larger hippocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter' in Neuroimage, volume 45, pages 672–678, asserting that long-term meditation is associated with larger hippocampal and frontal gray matter volumes.
H. S. Hodgins and K. C. Adair published a 2010 article in Consciousness and Cognition titled 'Attentional processes and meditation'.
Studies using the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) as a seed have found increased connectivity with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) at rest, and increased connectivity with the dorsal ACC during meditation.
In the historical Buddhist context, the term 'meditation' translates the Sanskrit term 'bhävana' (meaning 'cultivation' or 'causing to become') and the Tibetan term 'sgoms' (meaning 'development of familiarity').
While research is beginning to demonstrate state effects related to contemplative practices, the trait changes induced by the continued practice of Focused Attention (FA) and Open Monitoring (OM) meditation have not yet been adequately and objectively measured longitudinally.
Kjaer et al. (2002) observed increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced changes of consciousness.
Manna, A., Raffone, A., Perrucci, M. G., Nardo, D., Ferretti, A., Tartaro, A., et al. (2010) published 'Neural correlates of focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditation' in Brain Research Bulletin, volume 82, pages 46–56, identifying neural correlates associated with focused attention and cognitive monitoring during meditation.
E. Baron Short, S. Kose, Q. Mu, J. Borckardt, A. Newberg, and M. S. George published the article 'Regional brain activation during meditation shows time and practice effects: an exploratory FMRI study' in the journal Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 2010.
Studies by Delgado et al. (2010), Levenson et al. (2012), and van den Hurk et al. (2010b) have demonstrated that meditation leads to decreased startle amplitude and other low-level bottom-up forms of emotion regulation.
Individuals with meditation practice times above the median exhibited lower IL-6 and Profile of Mood States (POMS) distress scores following the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), according to Pace and colleagues (2010).
The hypometabolic state observed during meditation is qualitatively and quantitatively different from simple rest or sleep and may play a role in preventing stress-related hypertension or cardiovascular disease, according to Young and Taylor (1998) and Cahn and Polich (2006).
Lazar et al. (2000) conducted functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation, published in Neuroreport.
Brown and Jones (2010) provided electrophysiological evidence that meditation experience predicts less negative appraisal of pain, involving anticipatory neural responses.
Lou et al. (1999) conducted a 15O-H2O PET study of meditation and the resting state of normal consciousness, published in Human Brain Mapping.
During seated meditation at a middle level of samatha, the breathing rate may drop to two or three breaths per minute, compared to the approximately fifteen breaths per minute observed in normal adults at sea level, as reported by Lazar et al. (2000) and Austin (2006).
The five facets of mindfulness (Observing, Describing, Acting with Awareness, Non-judgement, and Non-reactivity) demonstrate consistent changes in response to meditation training and are associated with symptom improvement.
Ott, Holzel, and Vaitl (2010a) discussed how spiritual practice shapes the brain in the context of brain structure and meditation.
K. B. Baerentsen, H. Stodkilde-Jorgensen, B. Sommerlund, T. Hartmann, J. Damsgaard-Madsen, and M. Fosnaes published the article 'An investigation of brain processes supporting meditation' in the journal Cognitive Processing in 2010.
Lutz et al. (2008) demonstrated that long-term meditation practitioners exhibit neural correlates of attentional expertise.
During meditation, skin conductivity, oxygen consumption, heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol levels, muscle tone, urinary vanillyl mandelic acid (VMA) levels, and breathing rate all decrease, according to research by Jevning et al. (1992), Benson (2000), Lazar et al. (2005), and Austin (2006).
While biases of attention and memory related to habitual distortions are proposed to be extinguished and reconsolidated through meditation, the specific dosage and quality of meditation time required for such change remains unclear.
There is no established rule regarding the order of learning meditation practices, whether they must be practiced simultaneously, or if they can be practiced individually to achieve desired resultant states.
Levenson, Ekman, and Ricard (2012) conducted a case study on meditation and the startle response, published in Emotion.
Goleman and Schwartz (1976) studied meditation as an intervention for stress reactivity.
Chan and Woollacott (2007) investigated whether the efficiency of executive or orientation networks is improved by the level of meditation experience regarding attentional focus.
The strength of insula activation during meditation is associated with the self-reported intensity of the meditation state for both expert and novice practitioners.
Meta-awareness helps determine levels of dullness or excitation during meditation, thereby influencing the phenomenal intensity or clarity of the meditative experience, according to Lutz et al. (2007).
J. H. Jang, W. H. Jung, D. H. Kang, M. S. Byun, S. J. Kwon, C. H. Choi, et al. published a 2010 study in Neuroscience Letters finding that increased default mode network connectivity is associated with meditation.
The field of contemplative science faces a challenge in disambiguating the concept of mindfulness from common usage and eliminating the 'black box' or singular approach to studying meditation.
Receptive forms of meditation, such as Open Monitoring (OM), facilitate diffuse or ambient attentional mechanisms, which likely enhances the phenomenological awareness of objects in conscious experience without necessarily increasing cognitive access.
Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., and Davidson, R. J. (2008b) published 'Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation' in Trends in Cognitive Sciences, volume 12, pages 163–169, which explores mechanisms of attention regulation and monitoring within the context of meditation.
Tang et al. (2009) reported that short-term meditation alters the interaction between the central and autonomic nervous systems, as published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.
Training in Focused Attention (FA), Open Monitoring (OM), and Effortless Presence (EE) styles of meditation is proposed to support a sustainable healthy mind by reducing maladaptive emotions and cognitions (such as lust, greed, anger, hatred, and worry), increasing pro-social dispositions (such as compassion, empathy, and forgiveness), reducing attachments to thoughts and feelings, and removing biases inherent in habitual cognition.
The S-ART framework focuses on two core meditation practices: focused attention (FA), which is a concentrative practice, and open monitoring (OM), which is a receptive practice.
Lutz, A., Dunne, J. D., and Davidson, R. J. (2007) published 'Meditation and the neuroscience of consciousness' in the Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, pages 499–555, which discusses the intersection of meditation and consciousness research.
Lazar et al. (2005) found that meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness, as published in Neuroreport.
The presentation of emotional sounds during meditation is associated with increased pupil diameter and increased activation of the right anterior insular cortex (AIC) compared to rest, according to Lutz et al. (2008a).
Young and Taylor (1998) described meditation as a voluntary hypometabolic state of biological activation in News in Physiological Sciences.
Mindfulness is defined in four ways: (1) A temporary state of non-judgmental, non-reactive, present-centered attention and awareness cultivated during meditation; (2) An enduring trait described as a dispositional pattern of cognition, emotion, or behavioral tendency; (3) A meditation practice; (4) An intervention.
Studies by Kabat-Zinn et al. (1998), Davidson et al. (2003b), Smith (2004), Carlson et al. (2007), and Pace et al. (2010) indicate that meditation improves homeostatic regulation and the effective allocation of inflammatory responses in both novice meditators and individuals with major disease diagnoses.
The progression of meditation practice within the S-ART framework involves the following steps: (1) stabilize the mind and decrease mental proliferation (rumination) by developing a fully absorbed state of concentration on an object like the breath using focused attention (FA); (2) move on to open monitoring (OM) and other advanced receptive practices that have no object of focus and are receptive to all physical and mental phenomena that arise.
Josipovic, Dinstein, Weber, and Heeger (2011) studied the influence of meditation on anti-correlated networks in the brain.
The authors of the S-ART framework assert that the common practice of 'cherry picking' aspects of meditation practices to include in clinical interventions or education curricula and labeling them 'mindfulness' poses conceptual dangers for scientific investigation if the term is not qualified in its specific context.
Raffone and Srinivasan (2010) explored the role of meditation within the neuroscience of attention and consciousness in their paper 'The exploration of meditation in the neuroscience of attention and consciousness'.
Electromyography studies by Austin (2006) have revealed that meditators maintain muscle relaxation despite maintaining an upright, unsupported posture during meditation.
There is a lack of strong evidence supporting the claim that meditation practitioners have enhanced awareness of body sensations, despite many practitioners reporting such enhancement, as noted by Nielsen and Kaszniak (2006) and Khalsa et al. (2008).
Mindfulness is defined as a state, trait, process, type of meditation, and intervention that has proven beneficial for psychological disorders and general stress reduction.