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Mechanisms that contribute to the activation of a lock-in business model theme include sunk costs (Schmalensee, 1992), loyalty (Malhotra & Kubowicz Malhotra, 2013), direct network effects, indirect network effects (Clements, 2004), and data network effects emerging from machine learning technologies (Gregory et al., 2021; Climent et al., 2024; Haftor et al., 2024).

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