Knowledge Tree
Relations (1)
related 7.01 — strongly supporting 112 facts
China and Russia are major global powers that frequently act in concert as members of the P5+1 [1] and the JCPOA negotiations [2], while simultaneously being identified by the United States as revisionist powers [3]. They maintain a 'no-limits' partnership [4] and cooperate on regional policies in the Middle East [5] and joint naval exercises [6], often united by their shared opposition to Western dominance [7] and their strategic engagement with Iran {fact:25, fact:39}.
Facts (112)
Sources
Consequences of the Russia-Ukraine War and the Changing Face ... rand.org 14 facts
claimRussia and China have increased incentives to undermine the transatlantic alliance.
claimThe failure of Russian hybrid warfare, which includes military and nonmilitary tools like information campaigns, to deter military escalation has cast doubt on China's ability to deter war with the United States.
claimChina’s support for Russia is likely to persist through and perhaps intensify during periods of instability in Russia, unless the regime in Moscow changes substantially.
claimRussia's grand strategy will suffer a major reverse if Russian dependence on China continues to increase.
perspectiveThe United States and its allies should refine economic coercion tools because Russia is adapting to current sanctions and China is learning from Russia's experiences in mitigating these tools.
claimIndia has refused to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine or join Western sanctions against Russia in order to maintain a close relationship with Russia, driven by rivalry with China and the fear of driving Russia closer to China.
claimIf Russia uses a kinetic anti-satellite weapon in low earth orbit against commercial targets, the resulting debris would weaken persistent surveillance capabilities, potentially enhance the ability for all states to conduct offensive operations, and heighten China’s fears that the international system is unstable.
claimThe Russia-Ukraine war has weakened relationships between Europe and Russia, and between Europe and China, while strengthening relationships between the United States and its European allies.
referenceMeredith Reid Sarkees and Frank Wayman documented a list of historical conflicts and their major participants in their 2010 book 'Resort to War: 1816–2007', including the Crimean War (1853–1856, France/Great Britain/Ottoman Empire/Russia), the Lopez War (1864–1870, Argentina/Brazil/Paraguay/Uruguay), the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878, Russia/Ottoman Empire), the Boer War (1899–1902, Great Britain/Boers), the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905, Japan/Russia), the Russo-Polish War (1919–1921, Poland/Soviet Union), the Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936, Ethiopia/Italy), the Korean War (1950–1953, United States/North Korea/China/South Korea), the Vietnam War (1965–1975, United States/South Vietnam/North Vietnam), the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979–1987, Vietnam/China), the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989, Soviet Union/Afghanistan), and the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988, Iran/Iraq).
claimThe relationship between Russia and China has expanded and gained urgency because both countries perceive benefits from cooperating to weaken United States–led initiatives.
accountThe RAND Corporation research team assessed the geopolitical impact of the Russia-Ukraine war by analyzing the reactions and adaptations of Europe, Russia, China, and India, as well as changes to the broader international system and norms.
claimRussia has adapted to Western economic sanctions in ways that circumvent restrictions, and China is likely learning from this experience to improve its own countermeasures.
claimChina has refused to publicly endorse Russia’s military action in Ukraine.
claimIf China provides lethal military support to Russia, the development could suggest that Beijing perceives the United States' capacity for sustained conflict as stronger than expected and would challenge international humanitarian law.
Iran's Strategies in Response To Changes in US-China Relations mepc.org 11 facts
perspectiveAnti-hegemonic principles shared among Russian, Chinese, and Iranian political leaders play a significant role in strengthening their diplomatic relationships.
claimIran's ideological framework, which is built around the notion of American decline and the emergence of a new global order, serves as the primary strategic response to changes between superpowers and drives Tehran's policies toward China, the GCC, and Russia.
claimSenior Iranian leaders have historically identified realism as the primary pillar of their relationship with China and Russia.
claimRussia and China have formed networks of partnership with like-minded states and utilized international platforms to promote their visions and constrain the West, motivated by an interest in opposing the US-led, liberal global system.
accountIn 2019, Iran, Russia, and China conducted a joint naval exercise in the Indian Ocean to symbolize their commitment to opposing American global unilateralism.
claimIran has pursued a 'looking East' policy aimed at strengthening relations with China and Russia.
claimIran's foreign policy strategy in response to changing US-China relations involves deepening ties with China, revising regional policies to align with China's influence in the Gulf, and projecting power by aiding Russia in Ukraine.
claimChina and Russia have successfully navigated Iran's complex and ideology-oriented political system, unlike Western powers.
perspectiveThe analysis in the MEPC essay concludes that Iran's ideological framework, which is built around the notion of American decline and the emergence of a new global order, serves as the primary strategic response to changes between superpowers and the driving force for Tehran’s policies toward China, the GCC, and Russia.
claimRussia and China have strengthened their cooperation in military, energy, and finance sectors due to a mutual desire to redefine the normative principles of the international order.
claimIran's foreign policy strategy regarding the changing China-US relationship involves three primary approaches: deepening ties with China, revising policies to align with China's influence in the Gulf, and projecting power through military aid to Russia and anti-Israeli activities.
Iran's Strategic Approach to China, Russia and the GCC globalpolicyjournal.com 10 facts
imageThe photograph accompanying the article 'Iran's Strategic Approach to China, Russia and the GCC' is credited to Mohammad Hassan Taheri.
claimIran's 'Look East' policy, which prioritizes relations with China and Russia, is driven by economic imperatives resulting from Western sanctions, dual security considerations involving power projection and defensive deterrence, and an aspiration to position Iran within an anticipated multipolar global order.
perspectiveThe international community should view Iran's partnerships with China and Russia as foundational elements of a new world order rather than temporary tactical moves, and Western policies should account for this long-term strategic commitment.
claimIran leverages the competition between Russia and China to create strategic opportunities, as the two global powers compete as much as they cooperate.
claimConflicts occurring between 2023 and 2025 have exposed vulnerabilities in Iran's strategic framework, calling into question whether partnerships with China and Russia can provide the strategic resilience Tehran anticipated.
claimIran's joint naval exercises with Russia and China serve primarily as diplomatic theatre rather than preparation for integrated military operations, providing Iran with strategic ambiguity rather than actual operational capabilities or defense guarantees.
referenceThe study 'Iran's Strategic Approach to China, Russia and the GCC' utilizes thematic qualitative content analysis of approximately 70 documents from Iranian state official, advisory, and academic institutions published between 2015 and 2025.
claimDuring the 2025 crisis, Russia and China provided rhetorical backing to Iran but offered limited concrete support.
claimIran's joint naval exercises with Russia and China serve primarily as diplomatic theatre rather than preparation for integrated military operations.
claimThere is a gap between Iran's strategic narrative and reality, as evidenced by the 2025 crisis where Russia and China provided rhetorical backing but limited concrete support to Iran.
Iran at a Crossroads: Legitimacy, External Pressure and Regional ... ciris.info 8 facts
claimIn 2025, China and Russia supported Iran in rejecting European efforts to restore United Nations sanctions, which constrained Western leverage.
claimChina's diplomatic posture sometimes aligns with Russia and Iran against Western sanctions at the United Nations, but this does not form a unified ideological front.
claimIran, Russia, and China share a narrative reflex where they frame external pressure as an attack on sovereignty and regime survival to bolster domestic political resistance.
claimThe crisis in Iran is characterized as an 'Eurasian order shock' because major external powers, including Russia, China, and the European Union, respond to Iranian instability through divergent strategic lenses that dictate their choice of tools.
claimConvergence between Iran, Russia, and China is strongest when it supports domestic legitimation narratives and weakens Western tools, but fades when costs rise or interests diverge.
perspectiveNicole Grajewski characterizes the concept of a Russia-China-Iran 'Axis' as a myth and an illusory entente.
claimChina and Russia joined Iran in rejecting a European proposal to restore sanctions on Tehran on September 1, 2025.
claimThe relationships between Iran, Russia, and China are loose and transactional rather than a formal autocratic alliance.
Editorials Supporting an Iran Nuclear Deal, January - September 2015 armscontrol.org 8 facts
claimThe USA Today editorial board stated on September 9, 2015, that America's negotiating partners (Britain, China, France, Germany, and Russia) warned they would not return to the negotiating table if the U.S. Congress rejected the Iran nuclear deal.
claimThe P5+1 (China, France, Germany, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and Iran agreed on a framework for a comprehensive nuclear agreement intended to ensure Iran’s nuclear program remains exclusively peaceful.
perspectiveThe Pittsburgh Post-Gazette editorial board argued on March 11, 2015, that the 47 senators who signed a letter to Iranian leaders were undermining the foreign policy efforts of President Barack Obama and Secretary of State John Kerry, while also alienating international partners including China, France, Germany, Russia, and the United Kingdom.
quoteThe president made a choice, one of those difficult calls that arrive in the White House. Worth adding is that he is not alone. Germany, France and Britain joined in the agreement, along with Russia and China. All concluded the greater danger resided in Iran becoming a nuclear power. To their credit, the partners (for this endeavor [sic]) gained a deal that puts clear and formidable obstacles in the path of Iran.
claimThe Metro-West Daily News stated on March 11, 2015, that sanctions that convinced Iran to roll back and freeze its nuclear program are enforced by all parties to the negotiations, and that the U.S. depends on Russia and China to apply the pressure because the U.S. has nearly no trade with Iran.
accountThe United States, Britain, France, China, Russia, and Germany negotiated an interim deal that has sharply limited Iran's nuclear activities and were working toward a permanent agreement to further reduce the risk of Iran developing a nuclear weapon.
perspectiveThe Metro-West Daily News argued that if nuclear talks with Iran fall apart, Russia and China could make sanctions effectively disappear, leaving nothing to stop Iran’s pursuit of nuclear weapons.
perspectiveThe Norwich Bulletin editorial board argues that the Iran nuclear deal, which involved negotiations with Russia and China, represents a significant achievement that should not be discarded.
Iran War Unravels U.S. Strategy and Strengthens Russia–China Axis toda.org 7 facts
referenceThe December 2025 United States National Security Strategy treats China and Russia in isolation and offers no strategy to keep the two nations divided.
claimThe relationship between Russia and China is hardening into a structured alignment reinforced by energy interdependence, expanding defense cooperation, and increasingly coordinated diplomatic positions.
claimChina is accelerating its pivot toward secure, overland energy supplies from Russia in response to the strategic vulnerability of maritime supply disruptions caused by instability in the Gulf.
claimRussia trades its hydrocarbons for Chinese capital, technology, and diplomatic cover.
perspectiveRussia and China frame their cooperation as a new model of major-power relations aimed at establishing a multipolar order.
quoteIran's Foreign Minister Abbas Araghchi stated in a televised interview that military cooperation between Iran, Russia, and China continues.
claimThe current geopolitical trajectory is fusing Russian resources with Chinese technological and industrial capacity.
How China and Russia View the Iran War Differently nationalinterest.org 6 facts
claimChina seeks flexibility in its Middle Eastern relationships, whereas Russia accepts constraint in exchange for leverage.
claimChina and Russia maintain a partnership that is pragmatic rather than unified and strategic rather than ideological, as they do not share identical visions of what should replace the Western-led order.
claimChina and Russia share commonalities in their foreign policy, including opposition to Western dominance, criticism of Israeli military actions, and the maintenance of close ties with Iran.
claimRussia is less inhibited than China in criticizing Israeli actions and aligning rhetorically with Iran.
claimThe differences in strategic culture between China and Russia will continue to shape their policies toward Iran and Israel, as well as their broader roles in a fragmented global order.
claimChina's restraint and Russia's assertiveness regarding the Iran war are expressions of deeper strategic cultures rather than temporary reactions.
China and Russia's foreign policy in the Middle East and ... wasj.ir 4 facts
claimThe geopolitical strategies of China and Russia regarding the Palestinian issue have facilitated the formation of an alliance and closer ties with Iran and the Resistance Axis.
claimChina and Russia have increasingly emerged as two major powers shaping regional policies in the Middle East in recent decades, coinciding with a decline in United States influence.
claimChina and Russia have expressed an intention to replace the existing global system with an 'unrestricted partnership' to reshape the global landscape.
claimChina and Russia utilize the Palestinian issue as a tool to confront Western influence and strengthen their diplomatic relations with Arab countries and Iran.
An Integrated U.S. Strategy to Address Iran's Nuclear and Regional ... carnegieendowment.org 4 facts
claimRussia works in unison with Iran in Syria, Iran is central to China’s Belt and Road Initiative, and Europe fears that conflict with Iran would exacerbate regional unrest and increase the number of refugees.
perspectiveThe United States should coordinate with the European Union and E3 partners, as well as Russia and China, to build consensus and maintain tools for addressing nuclear and related challenges involving Iran.
claimThe Carnegie Endowment for International Peace operates a global network of policy research centers in Russia, China, Europe, the Middle East, India, and the United States.
claimRussia and China could potentially be enticed to support regional nuclear regimes if those regimes are recognized as serving all three pillars of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): nonproliferation, nuclear energy cooperation, and disarmament.
How China and Russia View the Iran War Differently isdp.eu 4 facts
claimChina and Russia both oppose Western dominance, criticize Israeli military actions, and maintain close ties with Iran.
claimRussia is structurally less vulnerable to disruptions in the Middle East than China, allowing it to view the crisis through a more sanguine lens.
claimChina views the Iran-related war as an opportunity to reinforce its image as a responsible power capable of managing crises without escalation, aiming to recover from the image loss it suffered during the Ukraine War due to its support for Russia.
perspectiveChina's approach to the Iran-Israel war is characterized by a desire for restraint, mediation, and systemic stability, whereas Russia's approach is characterized by loyalty, strategic alignment, and the pursuit of geopolitical opportunity.
Europe's Strategic Shift: Navigating a New Geopolitical Era kashmirtimes.com 4 facts
claimCentral and Eastern European nations and the Baltic states view China through a security lens, associating the country with Russian authoritarianism due to their history of Soviet domination.
claimEurope's current geopolitical strategy involves deliberate engagement with India, nuanced recalibration with Pakistan, development partnerships with Bangladesh and Afghanistan, cautious management of China, and the constant containment of Russia.
perspectiveThe European Union's ability to develop a single strategic response to the multipolar world is hampered by the economic divide between northern and southern member states, the east-west divide regarding Russia and China, and divergent perceptions of threats.
claimChina's 'no limits' partnership with Russia, which has persisted during the war in Ukraine, has negatively impacted China's image among many Europeans and clarified that China's geopolitical alignment often prioritizes authoritarianism over sovereignty and the UN charter.
The Geopolitics of the Russian-Ukrainian War: Implications for Africa ... eu-opensci.org 2 facts
perspectiveRealism theories posit that there is no international institution or agency capable of shielding states from one another, leading large powers like the United States, Russia, and China to constantly compete for dominance and prioritize their own security due to the absence of a global police force.
claimA potential Russian defeat or shift in power could result in a new configuration of Europe involving China in East Asia and the Western Pacific, potentially ending the current global order and ushering in a new Cold War between the 'East' and the 'West' and causing 'dire straits' for Africa (Vihma & Wigell, 2016).
Policy Steps to Prevent a Nuclear Iran | The Washington Institute washingtoninstitute.org 2 facts
claimDeepening military cooperation between Iran and Russia or China could increase the stakes and risks associated with any potential Israeli or U.S. military action against Iran.
claimIran's deepened relationships with Russia and China provided the Iranian regime with perceived protection from the effects of international sanctions.
What Is the Iran Nuclear Deal? | Council on Foreign Relations cfr.org 2 facts
referenceThe P5+1 group, which negotiated the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action with Iran, consisted of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and Germany, with participation from the European Union.
claimThe P5+1, which negotiated the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action with Iran, consisted of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and Germany, with participation from the European Union.
Iran's Geopolitical Footprint: Regional Power or Global Contender? moderndiplomacy.eu 2 facts
claimIran has deepened its relationships with China and Russia in recent years, specifically focusing on military cooperation and trade to counter United States influence and sanctions.
claimIran pursues a policy of 'self-reliance' and strategic autonomy, which involves diversifying international relationships and avoiding full dependence on any single power, including the United States, Russia, or China.
Independence play: Europe's pursuit of strategic autonomy ecfr.eu 2 facts
Gilbert Doctorow: Russia & China Reconsider U.S. Relations Over ... singjupost.com 2 facts
perspectiveGilbert Doctorow asserts that Iran is capable of looking after its own interests more effectively than external powers like Russia, China, or the United States.
claimThe 'Iran war' may have the strategic goal of weakening Russia and China.
The Geopolitical Competition of the United States, China ... journalisslp.com 2 facts
claimThe United States, China, and Russia engage in continuous competition in the Persian Gulf region over energy interests, economic interests, geopolitical influence, and regional hegemony.
claimThe United States, China, and Russia engage in the investment-driven sale and export of security-related goods to countries in the Persian Gulf.
We Bombed the Wrong Target Iran's Proxy Network Strategy irregularwarfare.org 1 fact
claimSpain, Chile, Russia, China, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Egypt have voiced concern or condemnation regarding U.S. unilateral coercive action against Iran's proxy network.
The Middle East Conflict and the Future of the Region's Political Order internationalaffairs.org.au 1 fact
accountThe Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was concluded in 2015 between Iran and the P5+1 powers, which included the United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, China, and Germany.
An Analysis of the Humanity's Messages to Extraterrestrial Intelligent ... sociostudies.org 1 fact
measurementThe staff of Cosmos magazine selected 501 messages from contributors in Australia, the U.S., China, Italy, Russia, and other countries for the Hello from Earth (HFE) project.
Transatlantic relations and European strategic autonomy in the ... - FIIA fiia.fi 1 fact
claimIn a primacy model, the United States would view China as part of a broader authoritarian challenge to liberal democracies, which also includes Russia, Iran, and North Korea.
Quest for Strategic Autonomy? Europe Grapples with the US - Ifri ifri.org 1 fact
perspectiveEuropean capitals are experiencing growing unease regarding China's impact on European security, partly due to the perception that Beijing has enabled Russia’s war efforts in Ukraine.
Europe's Strategic Recalibration: Embracing Autonomy Amid ... hornreview.org 1 fact
claimRussia and China are positioned to react strategically to any reduction in United States involvement and influence within NATO, potentially leading to a global security alliance recalibration.
Quest for Strategic Autonomy? Europe Grapples with the US - China ... realinstitutoelcano.org 1 fact
accountChina and Russia signed a 'no-limits' partnership shortly before Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, which highlighted the geopolitical rivalry between China and the West.
Winners and Losers: Russia, China, and Europe Respond to the ... carnegieendowment.org 1 fact
claimRussia and China are considered close allies of Iran.
Strategic Autonomy or Transatlantic Dependency The EU's Evolving ... strasbourgcentre.com 1 fact
claimThe European Union's pursuit of strategic autonomy is a response to a transformed global order characterized by a multipolar world, the rise of China, and traditional tensions between the United States and Russia.
What Comes Next? Iran Through a Middle Powers Lens belfercenter.org 1 fact
claimVietnam's political options are shaped by its historical relationships with Iran and traditional partners including Russia, China, North Korea, and Cuba.
Can the European Union Reduce Dependence on the United States? cescube.com 1 fact
referenceThe 'alliance fracture' scenario for EU–US security relations is characterized by a complete collapse of trust in NATO Article 5, leading to a return to nationalized defense policies or competing sub-regional blocs, leaving individual states vulnerable to external subversion from adversaries like Russia or China.
The EU between strategic autonomy and the transatlantic relationship esisc.org 1 fact
perspectiveThe United States might benefit from a more strategically autonomous European Union capable of maintaining low-level security competition in and around Europe, given the rise of China, Russian assertiveness, and Middle Eastern tensions.
US-China Strategic Competition in Each Domestic Context link.springer.com 1 fact
quoteThe National Security Strategy of the United States, issued in December 2017, classified China and Russia as "revisionist powers" that "challenge American power, influence, and interests, attempting to erode American security and prosperity."
Europe's quest for strategic autonomy in response to Trumpism link.springer.com 1 fact
claimSkepticism toward multilateralism in the United States increases as authoritarian states like China and Russia, along with countries in the Global South, assert their right to participate in international institutions as norm-setting actors.
War in Ukraine | Global Conflict Tracker - Council on Foreign Relations cfr.org 1 fact
claimRussia maintains partnerships with North Korea and Iran, which share intelligence and military equipment, and with India and China, which purchase Russian oil and gas at discounted prices.
Geopolitical analysis of the imposed war against Iran - Al Jazeera aljazeera.com 1 fact
claimNon-Western powers, specifically China, India, and Russia, are significant variables in international diplomacy, energy markets, and regional stability regarding the conflict with Iran.
The Strategic Dilemmas : Iranian Politics, the U.S. strategy ... hornreview.org 1 fact
claimChina's role as a top energy customer and mediator, and Russia's role in OPEC+ coordination since 2016, provide both countries with influence over Gulf states.
The EU's Open Strategic Autonomy and the challenge of ... globalpolicyjournal.com 1 fact
claimThe European Union's New Export Control Regime enhances restrictions on European Union exports that incorporate dual-use technologies, specifically targeting China and Russia.