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• Seed plants include gymnosperms (such as conifers) which produce "naked seeds," and angiosperms which produce flowers.
• Kingdom Plantae is classified into five subgroups: Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms.
• Angiosperms (flowering plants) surpassed gymnosperms by the middle of the Cretaceous period, approximately 100 million years ago (Ma), in the late Mesozoic era.
• Seed plants include angiosperms and gymnosperms.
• The evolutionary lineage of Charophytes, which eventually led to modern mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, is considered monophyletic.
• Angiosperms formed a sister clade that developed in parallel with gymnosperms, rather than being derived from them.
• The plant kingdom is classified into two groups: Cryptogams, which are non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants (e.g., Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta), and Phanerogams, which are flowering and seed-bearing plants (e.g., Gymnosperms, Angiosperms).
• Gnetophyta, a group consisting of 70 species across three genera, are considered the closest gymnosperm group to angiosperms because they produce true xylem tissue with vessel elements.